This version (2024/10/24 10:28) is a draft.
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History

Unix is from the ’70s:

terminals are monochrome
computers are big and expensive
many people use the same computer
networking becomes important

Unix is free to modify:

universities and companies have modified unix
released as BSD/Solaris/HP-UX/IRIX
fertile environment
rise of similar, non-collaborating features

Unix becomes the GCD of computing.

Freedom at stake:

the way of sharing programs is changing
best case: bsd-style license
usually: corporate licenses
- exclude freedom of sharing code with anyone

Sharing is caring:

write code
give away/sell product
- include sourcecode
- include the freedom/restriction to do share code under the same license

People want to save their idea of moral responsibility by formalising it as a licenses

In 1984 RMS starts the GNU project, with the goal to provide a free Unix-compatible OS

Steps to success:

Write a license (GPL)
- respect the freedom of the users
- endorse ‘sharing is caring’
- make the license transitive
Write an Editor (emacs)
Write a Compiler (gcc)
Write common utilities (coreutils)
Write everything else
Write a kernel (hurd)
Rewrite the kernel (hurd)
One more time (hurd)

Even though this project gets mocked for hurd, it is essential for Linux’ success!

In 1992 Linus Torvalds writes his own little terminal emulator, to be able to remotely access his university account.

Later this code evolves into the Linux kernel, that together with many GNU utilities becomes GNU/Linux — a.k.a Linux

Segment	Linux variant	Market share (Source)
Desktop	Debian / Fedora / Arch / …	~2%
Smartphone / Tablet	Android	~70%
Server	Debian / RHEL / Gentoo / … / CUSTOM	~65%
Supercomputer	CentOS / CUSTOM	~99%
Mainframe	RHEL / SLES	~30%
Embedded	Android / …	~30%

You are familiar with either:

computers in general
Windows
macOS

When something breaks, you:

ask for assistance or
read up on the subject and fix it and
don’t go on using it until it’s completly dead

by a show of hands:

Nothing
I know my way around when it comes to:
- files and directories
- the shell basics
- most core utilities
- variables
- scripts
- streams
All of the above and I want to take over

Everything starts at the root
- the root is a directory
- / denotes the root directory
the filesystem has different kinds of objects
1. files
2. directories
  - containers for multiple objects
3. links to objects, which either
  - add a second name for the same object
  - point to a position in the filesystem
objects can be referenced by their path
- absolute: /dir1/dir2/object
- relative: dir2/object
special objects in directories:
- . — is a reference to the directory itself
- .. — is a reference to the parent directory
the system may consist of multiple filesystems
- filesystems may be mounted at any (empty) directory

These are the helper types:

type Name     = String
type Children = [FSObject]
type Path     = [FSObject]
data LinkType = Soft | Hard

This is the code describing a trivial Linux-ish filesystem in a mathematical notation:

data FSObject = File Name
              | Dir  Name Children
              | Link Name Path LinkType

Missing:

Special files
- device
- fifo pipe
- socket
Attributes
Advanced FS features
- data integrity
- device managment
- subvolume support

The Filesystem Hierarchy Standard is a guideline for the structuring of local filesystems.

It aims for better interoperability between different Systems, by making it easy to figure out the location of any kind of file.

Directory	Purpose
/	root of the hierarchy
/bin/	basic binary files
/boot/	files for boot support
/dev/	virtual files, for direct access to devices
/etc/	system-wide confidurations - historical, misleading name
/home/	users’ home direcories are located here
/lib/	library files for `/bin/` `/sbin`
/media/	removable media mounts
/mnt/	temporary mounts
/opt/	optional applications
/proc/	system-internals accessable as files
/root/	home directory of root
/run/	variable data should be removed while booting
/sbin/	like `/bin/`, but require special permissions
/srv/	data served to other systems
/sys/	statistics about devices
/tmp/	temporary files, can be removed while booting
/usr/	most higher level applications are inside, looks a lot like `/`
/var/	files that change often (cache/db/log/mail/…)

Some systems don’t comply with the FHS, for various reasons.

VSC3

As the OS is basically a CentOS, the /lib/ and /lib64/ are just symlinks

Distributions bringing new ideas to the table

GoboLinux:

installed software packages get their own directory
filesystem itself is a package store

NixOS:

solves the problem of user installable packages
dependency management extended in a way, that aims to make trust a non-issue

The default login screen on most distributions looks something like this:

<<< Welcome to ${DISTRO} - tty{1..6} >>>

${MACHINE_NAME} login:
password:


username
<blank while typing>

remote login looks similar:

$ ssh username@remote
password:

If the login was not successful, just try again.

Beware, that systems may be configured to lock your account if too many attempts were made.

This is how the prompt looks by default:

[myname@l3_ ~]$

tells you:
- who you are
- which computer you’re on
- which directory you’re in
can be configured
- variable $PS1
- default: echo $PS1

Ways to get help when you’re stuck:

man
- manual for specified topic
- find man-pages: apropos
whatis
info
most commands support a -h/--help flag
colleagues are often helpful
the internet is often helpful

To execute a program, we call it:

nano file.txt
./a.out -flag=value
gcc -I/home/lv12345/myuser/include
module load non-existent-module

Every command that is executed will provide a return-value on exit.
- A value of 0 means success
- any other value means failure

Program Arguments

The default way to apply arguments to a program is to write a space separated list of arguments after the program when calling it.

Patterns and expansions are defining multiple arguments with little overhead:

the most important patterns are:
- ? — matches one character
- * — matches any character sequence
the most important expansions are:
- A{1,9}Z — expands to A1Z A9Z
- A{1..9}Z — expands to A1Z A2Z … A9Z

Chaining Commands

false ;  echo "Should I be Printed?"
false && echo "Should I be Printed?"
false || echo "Should I be Printed?"

Should I be Printed?
 
Should I be Printed?

Loops

for i in *
do
  mv $i{,.bak}
done

while true
do
  echo "Annoying Hello World"
  sleep 3
done

Or as one-liners:

for i in *; do mv $i{,.bak}; done
while true; do echo "Annoying Hello World"; sleep 3; done

Whenever you have a command, which you:

run often and it
- has a long list of parameters you always use
- is dangerous
which is an aggregate of many other commands
- but you don’t want to write a script

you can define an alias for it:

alias ll='ls -alh'
alias myProject='cd $ProjectDir; testSuite; compile && testSuite; cd -'

History

Your shell keeps a log of all the commands you executed.

the history command is used to access this history
for fast reuse of commands try the <CTRL>-R keys

Redirects

Write output to a file or file-descriptor

Command	Redirect	Append	Description
program	`> std.log`	`>> std.log`	redirect `stdout` to a file
program	`2> err.log`	`2>> err.log`	redirect `stderr` to a file
program	`2>&1`		redirect `stderr` to `stdout`

Pipes

Write output into the input-stream of another process

Command	Pipe	Description
program	`\| grep -i foo`	pipe `stdout` into `grep`
program	`\| tee file1 file2`	overwrite files and `stdout`
program	`\| tee -a file`	append to files and `stdout`

Set

LANG=de_AT.UTF-8 firefox
env LANG=de_AT.UTF-8 firefox

export LANG=de_AT.UTF-8

Get

env
echo ${LANG}

Unset

unset LANG
env -u LANG

Some variables that could affect you are:

$EDITOR            # the default editor for the CLI
$PAGER             # utility to read long streams
$PATH              # program paths, in priority order

if you’re aiming for programming, these could be more interresting:

$LIBRARY_PATH      # libraries to link by the compiler
$LD_LIBRARY_PATH   # libraries to link at runtime
$CC                # sometimes used to set default C compiler
$CFLAGS            # default flags for compiling C

looking around is done by the ls (list) command

$ ls      # shows files and directories

$ ls -a   # includes hidden ones

$ ls -l   # detailed view

testdir  test

.  ..  testdir  test

drwxr-xr-x 1 myuser p12345 0 Apr 13 11:55 testdir
-rw-r--r-- 1 myuser p12345 4 Apr 13 11:55 test

command	result
`ls /`	`bin dev etc home sbin usr`
`ls /home`	`user1 user2`

moving around is done by the cd (change directory) command

finding the current position in the filesystem is done by the pwd (print working directory) command

$ cd /bin   # go to an absolute directory

$ cd [~]    # go home

$ cd -      # go to previous directory

$ pwd   # /bin

$ pwd   # /home/user1

$ pwd   # /bin

moving files around is done by the mv (move) command

copying is done by the cp (copy) command

$ mv old   new     # rename old to new

$ mv old   dir/    # move old into dir

$ mv file1 file2   # overwrite file2 with file1
                   # (BEWARE)

$ cp -i input input.bak   # input to input.bak

$ cp -i input backup/     # input into backup

$ cp -a dir1/ dir2        # exact copy of dir1

To look at everything

in your home directory
and nested up to three levels deep inside it
that ends in .txt
or starts with log_
and is an ordinary file
concatenated as one stream:

find \
  ~ \
  -maxdepth 3 \
  -iname "*.txt" \
  -or -iname "log_*" \
  -type f \
  -exec cat '{}' \; | less

find \
  ~ \
  -maxdepth 3 \
  -iname "*.txt" \
  -or -iname "log_*" \
  -type f \
  -exec cat '{}' +  | less

directories

creating directories is done by the mkdir (make directory) command:

deleting directories is done by the rmdir (remove directory) command:

$ mkdir newdir       # create directory newdir
 
$ mkdir -p new/dir   # create dir inside of new

$ rmdir emptydir      # removes emptydir

$ rmdir -v emptydir   # removes emptydir (verbose)

files

creating files is done by the touch or echo commands:

deleting files is done by the rm (remove) command:

$ touch file          # create empty file
 
$ echo "abc" > file   # create/overwrite file

$ rm file      # removes file

$ rm -ri dir   # removes dir recursively

Contents of files

viewing is done by the less command:

concatenating is done by the cat command:

$ less file.txt      # exit with 'q'

$ less -R file.txt   # keep colors

$ cat file1 file2 | less

$ cat file

$ cat -A printable

$ cat -n numbered

$ echo "VSC is great" > file
$ cat file
VSC is great

$ echo "VSC is awesome" >> file
$ cat file
VSC is great
VSC is awesome

$ cat file | grep awesome
VSC is awesome

$ grep awesome file
VSC is awesome

viewing used space is done by the du (disk usage) command:

viewing free space is done by the df (disk free) command:

$ du -h file1 file2   # human readable output

$ du -s dir           # summarize

$ df -h       # human readable output

$ df -t nfs   # only list filesystems of a type

$ mv space.log space.log.bak

$ df -h | grep "lv12345\|lv54321" > space.log

$ cat space.log

nfs05.ib.cluster:/e/lv12345    200G  185G   16G  93% /home/lv12345
nfs04.ib.cluster:/e/lv54321   1000G  979G   22G  98% /home/lv54321

we do this often, let’s wrap it up!

$ mv space.log space.log.bak

$ df -h | grep "lv12345\|lv54321" > space.log

$ cat space.log

nfs05.ib.cluster:/e/lv12345    200G  185G   16G  93% /home/lv12345
nfs04.ib.cluster:/e/lv54321   1000G  979G   22G  98% /home/lv54321

we do this often, let’s wrap it up!

$ echo '#!/bin/bash' > spacelog.sh

$ echo 'mv space.log space.log.bak' >> spacelog.sh

$ echo 'df -h | grep "lv12345\|lv54321" > space.log' >> spacelog.sh

$ echo 'cat space.log' >> spacelog.sh

$ chmod +x spacelog.sh

$ ./spacelog.sh

sed (stream editor) and awk are powerful tools when working with the command line

$ mycommand | sed "..."

$ mycommand | awk '{...}'

Using sed and awk in action

program	command	description
sed	`s/old/new/`	replace `old` with `new`
sed	`/from/,/to/ s/old/new/`	replace `old` with `new`, between `from` and `to`
awk	`'print $5, $3'`	print columns 5 and 3 of every line

Example script:

#!/bin/bash
 
mv space.log space.log.bak
df -h | grep "lv12345\|lv54321" > space.log
cat space.log

#!/bin/bash
 
mv space.log space.log.bak
df -h | grep "lv12345\|lv54321" > space.log
cat space.log | sed "s|/home/lv12345|ProjectA|" \
              | awk '{print $6, "free:", $4}' \
              | column -t

Just to ensure, that you are able to run your scripts

chown

Change the owner of files and directories by:

chown -R user:group dirs files

chmod

Change the mode of files and directories by:

chmod -R u=rw,g+w,o-rwx dirs files
chmod -R 644            dirs files

A little test program, which we mark as executable and hand it over to the corresponding interpreter:

cat << EOF > test.sh
 
echo "${LANG}"
echo "${PATH}"
EOF

chmod +x test.sh

bash test.sh

Don’t we have an OS, capable of executing everything it recognises as a executable?

Yes, we do!

cat << EOF > test.sh
#!/bin/bash
echo "${LANG}"
echo "${PATH}"
EOF

chmod +x test.sh

./test.sh

Programming in bash would be cumbersome without functions, so here we go:

printAllNumbers () {
echo "1 2 3"
echo "done"
}

Arguments

This isn’t good, as were only getting a fixed amount of numbers. let’s try a recursive approach

#!/bin/bash
 
printAllNumbersFrom () {
num=$1
echo "${num}"
printAllNumbersFrom "$(($num + 1))"
}
 
printAllNumbersFrom $2

Many different editors
- Unique (dis-)advantages
- Different look and feel
Editors should provide us with
1. Simple text editing
2. Copy and paste
3. Search and replace
4. Saving changes
5. Wide availability

Two editors that satisfy our needs:

nano
vim

Common starting point

nano filename

vim filename

This editor is focused on being easy to use, but still providing every feature a user might need.

Interface

The interface consists of four parts, namely from top to bottom:

Title bar
Text area
Command line
Key bindings

Usage

Nothing special, key-bindings visible while editing

Feature	Usage
Navigation	Arrow keys
Actual editing	Typing text, as usual
Cut/Paste line	`<CTRL>`+k / `<CTRL>`+u
…	explained in key bindings field

Short

Use this editor if you are new to the command line.

It is straight forward, but can be extended on the way.

Auto-indentation
Syntax highlighting
Multi-buffer

This editor is focused on productivity and efficiency, providing everything a user might need.

Interface

The simple interface consists of two parts:

Text area
Command line

Since this editor is very easy to extend, after setting up a few plugins, it will probably look quite different!

Usage

This is a multimode editor, you’ll have to switch modes whenever you change what you want to do.

Feature	Usage
Navigation	hjkl / Arrow keys
Writing	change to input mode, then write as usual
Commands	exit current mode, press `:`
…	explained on next slide

Short

Use this editor if you like a challenge.

It is fast and very nice — but you’ll sometimes get hurt on the way.

Auto-indentation, Syntax highlighting, Multi-buffer – just like nano
File/Project Management
Use a plugin manager

any mode:
- back to the default mode: <ESC>
command mode (followed by <RETURN>):
- save current file: w [filename]
- quit the editor
  - after saving: q
  - without confirmation: q!
- help: h [topic], e.g. h tutorial
- search and replace: %s/old/new/gc
default mode:
- enter input mode: i
- enter command mode: : (colon)
- mark
  - character-wise: v
  - line-wise: <SHIFT>-v
- delete
  - character-wise: x
  - line-wise: dd
  - marked content: d
- search: /abc

Questions?
Need help installing Linux?
Contact: <Email>

<HTML> <!–

Public domain:

- [Ubuntu Tango Icons](https://wiki.ubuntuusers.de/Wiki/Icons/Tango/)

Mixed (CC, public domain, …)

- [Wikipedia Tango Icons](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Tango_icons)

# Timers ## Systemd Units ## Systemd Timers ## Putting it together

## Background ### What is GNU/Linux {.incremental}

![](pictures/gnu.svg){height=200px style=“float: left;” .incremental} <div class=“columns”>

- It's a collection of Software, including:
- Linux itself, as the `kernel`
- basic tools, mostly from the GNU project
- additional, specialised software for most tasks
- the OS that powers the internet, the mobile world and more
- opensource and free software effort to retain essential freedoms of the user

</div>

### Reasons for Linux {.incremental}

![](pictures/tux.svg){height=200px style=“float: right;”.incremental} <div class=“columns”>

- Wide Adoption
- Stable platform
- Anyone can try and use Linux
- Easy adaption to custom environments

</div>

### Basic Usage {.incremental}

![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Utilities-terminal.svg){height=200px style=“float: left;” .incremental} <div class=“columns”>

- using and understanding the shell
- moving through the directory structure
- moving files and directories
- editing files
- writing and executing scripts
- environment and variables

</div>

## CLI Basics <div class=“columns”> ### Shell

The shell used on the VSC is called bash. It's the most common shell today, preinstalled by most Linux and macOS versions.

- It's behaviour is controlled by the file .bashrc
- loaded at login
- can be customized
- is a shell script
- Has some usability features
- most of the time commands can be auto-completed by pressing `TAB`
- can recall history with `CTRL-R` or `history`
- Provides a full programming language/environment
- can do native processing of Strings, Integers and Arrays
- can execute any program
- is turing-complete, but not considered a general-purpose language

### Environment

The shell and some default tools are configured through variables.

- list variables with `env`
- modify them with `export X=Y`
- get the content by prepending it with a dollar sign `$A`
- useful in scripts

<div class=“incremental”> Some variables that could affect you are:

``` $EDITOR # the default editor for the CLI $PAGER # utility to read long streams $PATH # program paths, in priority order ``` </div> </div>

## Executing Commands

<div class=“columns”> <div class=“incremental”> To execute a program, we call it:

```{.bash} nano file.txt ./a.out -flag=value gcc -I/home/lv12345/myuser/include module load non-existent-module ``` </div>

- Every command that is executed will provide a return-value on exit.
- ![](https://media-cdn.ubuntu-de.org/wiki/attachments/21/07/dialog-ok.png){height=30px} A value of `0` means success
- ![](https://media-cdn.ubuntu-de.org/wiki/attachments/39/07/dialog-cancel.png){height=30px} any other value means failure

</div>

### Program Arguments {.incremental}

The default way to apply arguments to a program is to write a space separated list of arguments after the program when calling it.

Patterns and expansions are defining multiple arguments with little overhead:

</div> <div class=“columns”>

- the most important patterns are:
- ? — matches one character
- \* — matches any character sequence
- the most important expansions are:
- A{1,2}Z — expands to A1Z A2Z
- 1{a..z}A — expands to 1aA 1bA … 1zA

</div>

### Chaining Commands {.incremental}

<div class=“columns incremental”> ``` {.bash .numberLines} false ; echo “Should I be Printed?” false && echo “Should I be Printed?” false || echo “Should I be Printed?” ```

``` {.bash .numberLines} Should I be Printed?

Should I be Printed? ``` </div>

<!–

- - -

### Using Patterns and Expansions {.incremental}

- the most important patterns are:
- ? — matches one character
- \* — matches any character sequence
- the most important expansions are:
- A{1,2}Z — expands to A1Z A2Z
- 1{a..z}A — expands to 1aA 1bA … 1zA

</div> –> <!– ## Loops

look like this in a shell:

<div class=“columns incremental”> ```{.bash} for i in * do

mv $i{,.bak}

done ```

```{.bash} while true do

echo "Annoying Hello World"
sleep 3

done ``` </div>

#### Generating parameters in bash {.incremental}

<div class=“columns incremental”> ```{.bash} i=1 while [ $i -lt 10 ] do

j=1
while [ $j -le $i ]
do
  echo "$i $j" # Your command comes here
  let j+=1
done
let i+=1

done unset i j ```

```{.bash} 1 1 2 1 2 2 3 1 3 2 3 3 … 9 6 9 7 9 8 9 9 ```

</div>

## Getting familiar with the CLI

This is how the prompt looks by default:

``` {.bash} [myname@l3_ ~]$ ```

![](src/Screenshot_vsc3_login.png){height=190px .incremental} ![](src/Screenshot_vsc3_login_prompt.png){height=190px .incremental} ![](src/Screenshot_vsc3_login_prompt2.png){height=190px .incremental} </div>

#### Prompt {.incremental}

- it's “promting” you to enter a command
- tells you:
- who you are
- which computer you're on
- which directory you're in
- can be configured to show more information
- setting is in a variable called `PS1`
- default value of `$PS1`: `[\u@\h \w]\$`
- can add date, time and the output of custom commands
- see `man bash` for details about your shell

</div>

<div style=“float: right” class=“incremental”> #### In case of confusion

there are many ways of getting further:

- the `man` command
- opens the manual for a specified topic
- especially nice to find man-pages: `apropos`
- the `whatis` command
- the `info` command
- is more complex and more like a browser
- most commands support a `-h`/`–help` flag
- colleagues are often helpful
- the internet is often helpful

</div>

<div style=“float: left” class=“incremental”> ![`apropos help`](src/Screenshot_vsc3_apropos.png){width=270px .incremental} </div>

## Shell - More than a prompt

### Simple Input/Output

<div class=“columns incremental”> Any program running in the shell can by default read from the keyboard and write to the screen.

We try this with the `cat` command, which is short for concatenate.

```{.bash} cat some text # Input some text # Output <CTRL>-d ``` </div>

### Piping Input/Output

<div class=“columns incremental”> Since echoing input back to the user isn't particularly useful, we'll be echoing back filtered output.

We add a pipe, which redirects the output of the command before it to the command following it, and filter for any line containing `VSC`.

```{.bash} cat | grep VSC 1 2 3 # Input, no Output 1 VSC 3 # Input 1 VSC 3 # Output <CTRL>-d ``` </div>

### Redirecting Input/Output

<div class=“columns incremental”> Now we can write the resulting stream into a file called VSC.txt.

This is done by adding a greater-sign between the end of the command and the filename of the resulting document.

```{.bash} cat | grep VSC > VSC.txt 1 2 3 # Will not be in VSC.txt 1 VSC 3 # Will be in VSC.txt <CTRL>-d ``` <!– ```{.bash} cat VSC.txt 1 VSC 3 ``` –> <!– </div>

## Cool Tools

### Less is More

<div class=“columns”> Since piping output is awesome we want to have a program, that can handle all the output of the other programs and present it in screen-sized parts.

Hence the program `less`, which is just `more`.

```{.bash} find ~ -iname “*.txt” -type f -exec cat '{}' \; | less ``` </div>

### Permissions

<div class=“columns”> If some file can't be accessed/modified, there is a chance that you haven't got the rights to do so.

For these cases there is the tool `chmod`, which changes the mode of a file.

```{.bash} chmod a=w file chmod u+x file chmod g-w file chmod o=r file ``` </div>

### Aliasing commands

<div class=“columns”> you should define an `alias`, whenever there is a command which:

- is run with parameters which don't change between runs - has some hard to remember name - needs a non-default safeguard

```{.bash} alias f='find ~ -type f -iname' alias rm='rm -i' alias def-env='cd ~/projectA && \

             module purge && \
             module load x/1 y/2 z/3'

``` </div>

## Filesystem 101

1. Everything starts at the root
- the root is a directory
- `/` denotes the root directory
2. the filesystem has different kinds of objects
1. files
2. directories
- containers for multiple objects
3. links to objects, which either
- add a second name for the same object
- point to a position in the filesystem
3. objects can be referenced by their path
- absolute: `/dir1/dir2/object`
- relative: `dir2/object`
4. special objects in directories:
- `.` — is a reference to the directory itself
- `..` — is a reference to the parent directory

</div>

##### The Filesystem represented as an ADT {.incremental} <div class=“incremental columns”>

These are the helper types:

```{.haskell} type Name = String type Children = [FSObject] type Path = [FSObject] data LinkType = Soft | Hard ```

This is the code describing the trivial Linux-ish filesystem in a mathematical notation:

```{.haskell} data FSObject = File Name

            | Dir  Name Children
            | Link Name Path LinkType

``` </div>

- - -

### Getting and Manipulating our position in the FS

- `'ls'`: short for `'list'`
- `'tree'`: tree view of files and directories
- `'pwd'`: short for `'print work directory'`
- `'cd'`: short for `'change directory'`

</div>

Example for looking around:

<div class=“columns incremental”> ``` $ ls # shows files and directories

$ ls -a # includes hidden ones

$ ls -l # detailed view ```

``` testdir testfile

. .. testdir testfile

drwxr-xr-x 1 myuser p12345 0 Apr 13 11:55 testdir -rw-r–r– 1 myuser p12345 4 Apr 13 11:55 testfile ``` </div> </div>

Example for moving around, starting at the home directory:

</div> <div class=“columns incremental”> ``` $ pwd

$ cd ..; pwd

$ cd /global; pwd

$ cd; pwd

$ cd -; pwd ```

``` /home/lv12345/myname

/home/lv12345

/global

/home/lv12345/myname

/global ``` </div>

- - -

### Moving files and directories

- `'mv'`: short for `'move'`
- `'cp'`: short for `'copy'`

</div> <div class=“incremental”>

Example:

<div class=“columns”> ``` $ cp file.orig file.copy $ mv file.orig file.copy

$ cp file.orig dir $ mv file.orig dir

$ cp dir1 dir2 # ERROR $ cp -r dir1 dir2 # WORKS $ mv dir1 dir2 # WORKS ```

- copying or moving directories can result in unexpected behaviour:
- if dir2 is an existing directory, dir1 will become a subdirectory of dir2
- if dir2 is non-existent, dir1 will become dir2

</div>

<div class=“columns”> ##### Transfer to/from Cluster

- `'scp'`: short for `'secure copy'`
- arguments can be either local or remote files and direcotries
- `'rsync'`: short for `'remote syncronization'`
- similar to regular `mv`/`cp`/`scp`, except:
- pedantic about trailing slashes
- can merge directories
- can delete/overwrite changed files

</div>

`rsync` seems easy to use, but the advanced options could remove data from both sides of your transfer! It's a syncronazation utility, no simple move/copy tool </div>

<!– - - -

##### SCP

``` $ cp file.orig file.new

$ scp user@host:dir/file.orig file.new

$ scp file.orig user@host:dir/file.new ```

- this is easy to use and preferable for little, one time transfers

[ID1]: src/tux.svg “Hover Text 1” {height=150px style=“margin: 10px;”} [ID2]: src/tux.svg “Hover Text 2”

- ![Test][ID1] - ![Test](src/tux.svg “Hover Text 1”){height=150px style=“margin: 10px;”} - [<font color=#cc3300>➠</font>][ID2]

- - -

##### RSYNC

``` $ rsync dir1 dir2 # Local copy $ rsync -e ssh dir1 dir2 # Remote copy

# These two have the same result: $ rsync dir1 dir2 $ rsync dir1/ dir2/dir1

# This doesn't: $ rsync dir1/ dir2 ```

- there are many useful options, like:

`-a` $\rightarrow$ Archive mode, usually you want this
`-v` $\rightarrow$ Verbose mode
`-p` $\rightarrow$ Preserve permissions
`…` $\rightarrow$ RTFM or don't use those options

- the `-e ssh` option tells rsync to connect via ssh to the remote machine

in this case the remote location is written like this:
1. user@host:remoteDir

- trailing slashes have an effect on where your files will go

–> <!– ## Copyleft

Third party content and its licensing information can be found at:

- [Levitating Gnu](https://www.gnu.org/graphics/meditate.html):

María del Pilar Saenz: [GFDL](https://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html)

- [Tux](https://pixabay.com/en/tux-penguin-animal-cute-linux-158547/):

[CC0 Public Domain](https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.en)

- [Tux and Gnu](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:GNU_and_Tux.svg):

Aurelio A. Heckert: [Free Art License](http://artlibre.org/licence/lal/en/)
Larry Ewing, Simon Budig and Anja Gerwinski: probably [CC-BY](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

- [Tango Icons](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Tango_icons ):

Public Domain

## Copyright

The not explicitly licensed or non freely-redistributable licensed stuff:

- [the Good, the Bad & the Ugly](http://cinetropolis.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/the-good-the-bad-and-the-ugly-t-anderson-banner.jpg):

[Dunno]()

## TestStuff 😁 $\rightarrow$ 😄 😁 $\Rightarrow$ 😄 😁 $\longrightarrow$ 😄 😁 $\Longrightarrow$ 😄

https://apps.timwhitlock.info/emoji/tables/unicode#emoji-modal

[]:#(Das ist ein Kommentar, dass nirgends aufscheint) [TuxAndGnu]: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/GNU_and_Tux.svg “Tux and Gnu” [VSC]: https://vsc.ac.at “Vienna Scientific Cluster” ## ToDo - nano/vi - df -h . - du -sh ./* - cat | sort | uniq | tr | awk | sed - example ## table head1 | head2 | head3 :—–|:—–:|—–: p1 | e11 | e12 p1 | e11 | e12e12 p1 | e12e12e12e12e12 | e12 head1 | head2 | head3 :—–|:—–:|—–: p1 | e11 | e12 p1 | e11 | e12e12 p1 | e12e12e12e12e12 | e12 –> </HTML>

History

Unix — Linux’ predecessor

Hacker culture

GNU

Linux

Linux on Supercomputers

Prerequisites

Assumptions

What do you know about Linux?

Filesystems

Filesystem 101

The Filesystem represented as an ADT

FHS intro

FHS

Corner cases of FHS

VSC3

Distributions bringing new ideas to the table

Shell

Login

Prompt

Execution

Program Arguments

Control Flow

Chaining Commands

Loops

Aliases

History

Streams

Redirects

Pipes

Environment Variables

Setting, getting and unsetting

Set

Get

Unset

Use cases

Core Utilities

Looking around

Moving around

Copying & moving files around

Finding stuff

Creating and deleting

directories

files

Contents of files

Space accounting

Recap

Recap++

Sed and awk

Scripting

Ownership and Permissions

chown

chmod

Shebang

Functions (more like Procedures)

Arguments

Editors

General

Two editors that satisfy our needs:

Common starting point

Nano

Nano explained

Interface

Usage

Short

Vi(m)

Vi(m) explained

Interface

Usage

Short

Vi(m) modes and keys

QED

Fin